Sources of Muslim Law in India – AIBE

Introduction

Muslim Law, also known as Islamic Law or Mohammedan Law, is one of the oldest legal systems in the world, governing the personal, social, and religious life of Muslims. It derives primarily from divine revelation and later interpretations by Islamic jurists. In India, Muslim law applies to Muslims in matters of marriage, divorce, maintenance, inheritance, guardianship, and waqf (religious endowment).

The philosophy behind Muslim law is rooted in divine justice, aiming to regulate human conduct according to the will of God (Allah) as revealed to Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). The system has evolved through a blend of religious texts, customs, and modern legal developments.

1. Meaning and Nature of Muslim Law

Muslim law (Sharia or Shariat) is derived from the Arabic word “Shar”, meaning “the path to be followed.” It denotes the path ordained by Allah for human beings.
It covers every aspect of a Muslim’s life — from moral obligations to social conduct and legal rules.

In India, Muslim law is treated as personal law, applied by Indian courts to Muslims under Article 25 and 26 of the Constitution, which ensure the freedom to profess and practice religion.

2. Historical Development of Muslim Law in India

Muslim law was introduced in India with the advent of Muslim rulers, starting from the 12th century. During the Mughal period, it governed civil and criminal matters.
However, during British rule, Muslim law continued to apply to Muslims in personal matters, but the British administration gradually replaced Islamic criminal and constitutional laws with English laws.

This continuity of Muslim personal law in independent India was reaffirmed by the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937.

3. The Shariat Application Act, 1937

Purpose and Objective

Before 1937, Indian Muslims were often governed by customary practices and local usages, which varied from one region or sect to another. These customs sometimes contradicted Islamic principles.
The Shariat Application Act, 1937 was enacted to ensure that Muslim personal law (Shariat) would be uniformly applied to Muslims in matters of personal life.

Key Provisions

Section 2: Declares that Muslim personal law (Shariat) shall apply to all Muslims in matters of:
- Marriage, dissolution of marriage, and maintenance
- Dower (mahr)
- Guardianship
- Gifts and wills
- Inheritance and succession
- Waqf (charitable endowments)
Section 3: Allows a Muslim to make a declaration that they desire to be governed by Shariat in particular matters.

Impact

The Act replaced customs and local usages with uniform Islamic principles derived from the Quran and Sunnah.
It strengthened the application of religious law over customary law, ensuring a consistent interpretation of Muslim personal matters across India.

4. Sources of Mohammedan Law

Muslim law derives its authority from divine revelation (primary sources) and human reasoning and interpretation (secondary and modern sources). These sources can be divided into:

Primary Sources
- The Quran
- The Sunnah (Hadith)
- Ijma (Consensus)
- Qiyas (Analogical Deduction)
Other Sources
- Custom or Urf
Modern Sources
- Judicial Precedents
- Legislation
- Principles of Equity, Justice, and Good Conscience

5. Primary Sources of Muslim Law

(a) The Quran

The Quran is the supreme and fundamental source of all Islamic law. It is believed to be the word of God revealed to Prophet Muhammad through Angel Gabriel.

Legal Provisions in the Quran

Out of approximately 6,000 verses, about 500 verses deal directly with legal issues such as:

Marriage and divorce (e.g., Surah Al-Baqarah, Surah An-Nisa)
Inheritance (Surah An-Nisa)
Contracts, debts, and trade (Surah Al-Baqarah)
Crimes and punishments (Surah Al-Ma’idah)

The Quran lays down the principles of justice, equality, and morality and forms the foundation upon which other sources interpret or elaborate.

Example

In matters of inheritance, the Quran specifies the shares of heirs, thus forming the basis of Muslim law of succession.

(b) The Sunnah (Hadith)

The Sunnah refers to the sayings, actions, and approvals of Prophet Muhammad. It serves as a complementary source to the Quran.

Where the Quran is silent or ambiguous, the Sunnah provides practical examples of how to implement divine principles.

Types of Sunnah

Sunnat-ul-Qaul – Prophet’s sayings.
Sunnat-ul-Fil – Prophet’s actions.
Sunnat-ul-Taqrir – Prophet’s tacit approvals.

Example

The Quran commands Muslims to offer prayers (Salah), but does not prescribe the method. The Sunnah provides details of prayer rituals.

Legal Authority

The Prophet’s words and actions are considered a divine guide. The Quran itself commands believers to obey the Prophet (Surah Al-Hashr: 7).

(c) Ijma (Consensus of the Learned)

Ijma means the consensus of Islamic scholars on a legal question not directly addressed in the Quran or Sunnah.

Types of Ijma

Ijma of Companions (Sahaba) – Consensus among Prophet’s companions.
Ijma of Jurists (Mujtahids) – Consensus of later scholars.

Importance

Ijma ensures that Islamic law remains dynamic and adaptable to new situations. It reflects the collective wisdom of the Muslim community.

Example

The consensus on compiling the Quran into a single book after the Prophet’s death is a form of Ijma.

(d) Qiyas (Analogical Deduction)

Qiyas refers to reasoning by analogy. When a case is not explicitly covered by the Quran or Sunnah, jurists draw an analogy with existing rules.

Process of Qiyas

Identify a known rule from the Quran or Sunnah.
Find the reason (illah) behind that rule.
Apply the same reason to a new case.

Example

The Quran prohibits wine because it causes intoxication.
By analogy (Qiyas), jurists extended the same prohibition to all intoxicating substances such as drugs.

Significance

Qiyas demonstrates the rational and flexible character of Muslim law, allowing it to address issues of changing times.

6. Other Sources of Muslim Law

Custom (Urf)

Although Islam discourages customs contrary to the Shariat, customs that are ancient, continuous, reasonable, and not opposed to Islamic law may be recognized.

Types of Custom

Local Custom – Followed in a specific region.
Family Custom – Followed by a particular family.
Tribal Custom – Observed by a particular tribe.

Example

The practice of mehr (dower) varies in amount and form across regions, influenced by customary practices.

Judicial Recognition

Courts have upheld valid customs if they are not inconsistent with the Quran or statutory law.
Example: Abdul Hussain v. Sona Dero (1917) – Recognized a local custom related to marriage.

7. Modern Sources of Muslim Law

(a) Judicial Precedents

With the advent of British rule and later the Indian judiciary, judicial decisions became an important source of Muslim law.

Courts interpret Muslim law principles and apply them to contemporary situations. Such decisions have binding value under Article 141 of the Constitution.

Examples

Abdul Rahim v. Narayan Das (1883) – Clarified the concept of waqf.
Shah Bano Begum v. Union of India (1985 AIR 945) – Expanded the right of divorced Muslim women to maintenance under Section 125 CrPC.
Daniel Latifi v. Union of India (2001) – Upheld the constitutional validity of the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986.

Significance

Judicial precedents ensure that Islamic law evolves in harmony with the Constitutional principles of justice, equality, and gender equity.

(b) Legislation

Several statutes have codified or modified aspects of Muslim personal law. These laws aim to reconcile religious principles with modern social realities.

Major Enactments

The Shariat Application Act, 1937
– Enforces uniform application of Muslim personal law.
The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939
– Empowers Muslim women to seek divorce on specific grounds.
The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986
– Provides financial rights to divorced Muslim women.
The Waqf Act, 1995
– Regulates management and administration of waqf properties.

Impact

Legislation ensures that Muslim law remains compatible with modern notions of human rights, while preserving its religious integrity.

(c) Equity, Justice, and Good Conscience

In cases where no clear rule of Muslim law or statute applies, courts decide matters based on principles of equity, justice, and good conscience.

This doctrine, rooted in English jurisprudence, allows flexibility and moral fairness in judicial decisions.

Example

If a dispute arises that is not expressly covered under Muslim law or any statute, courts may decide it in a manner that promotes justice and fairness, consistent with Islamic principles.

Case Law

Mst. Khatija v. Abdul Rahman (1916) – The court applied principles of equity to decide inheritance issues not explicitly covered by Muslim law.

8. Schools of Muslim Law

The development and interpretation of these sources have given rise to different schools of Muslim law:

Sunni Schools – Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, Hanbali
Shia Schools – Ithna Ashari, Ismaili, Zaidi

In India, the Hanafi School predominates, though Shia laws apply to Shia Muslims in specific matters such as inheritance and marriage.

9. Significance of Sources of Muslim Law

The hierarchy of sources ensures that Muslim law remains:

Divine (Quran and Sunnah-based),
Rational (through Ijma and Qiyas),
Adaptable (through customs and modern sources), and
Just (through equity and judicial precedents).

Together, they maintain the spiritual essence of Islam while accommodating evolving social and legal needs.

Conclusion

The sources of Muslim law represent a blend of divine revelation, human interpretation, and judicial adaptation.
From the Quran and Sunnah to legislation and case law, the evolution of Muslim law showcases its ability to balance faith with modernity.

The Shariat Application Act, 1937, played a historic role in restoring authenticity to Islamic law in India by replacing inconsistent customs with Shariat principles.

Today, Muslim law continues to operate as a living system — dynamic, interpretive, and deeply ethical — reflecting the eternal quest for justice and social harmony in accordance with divine will.

MCQs on Sources of Muslim Law

No.	Question	Options	Answer	Explanation
1	The term Shariat literally means:	a) Justice and morality b) Path to be followed c) Divine judgment d) Islamic administration	b	“Shariat” comes from Arabic, meaning the path to be followed — the divine path prescribed by Allah.
2	The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act was enacted in:	a) 1919 b) 1937 c) 1950 d) 1947	b	The Act was enacted in 1937 to ensure uniform application of Muslim Personal Law in India.
3	The Shariat Application Act, 1937 replaced:	a) English law b) Tribal law c) Customs and local usages d) Hindu law	c	It replaced regional customs and usages that contradicted Islamic law, ensuring Shariat governed personal matters.
4	Which of the following matters is covered under Section 2 of the Shariat Act, 1937?	a) Criminal matters b) Taxation c) Marriage, inheritance, waqf d) Property registration	c	Section 2 applies Shariat to personal law matters such as marriage, inheritance, and waqf.
5	The primary source of Muslim law is:	a) Ijma b) Qiyas c) Quran d) Judicial precedents	c	The Quran is the first and most authoritative source of Muslim law.
6	Approximately how many verses in the Quran deal with legal matters?	a) 100 b) 300 c) 500 d) 1000	c	Out of 6,000 verses, about 500 address legal issues like marriage, inheritance, and contracts.
7	The Sunnah refers to:	a) Prophet’s dreams b) Prophet’s sayings, acts, and approvals c) Islamic rituals d) Scholarly writings	b	Sunnah includes the Prophet’s sayings, actions, and silent approvals — serving as a practical interpretation of the Quran.
8	The Prophet’s sayings are known as:	a) Hadith b) Fiqh c) Shura d) Fatwa	a	Hadith means recorded sayings or narrations of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him).
9	When Islamic scholars agree on a legal issue not mentioned in the Quran or Sunnah, it is known as:	a) Qiyas b) Ijma c) Fatwa d) Fiqh	b	Ijma refers to the consensus of learned scholars on questions not directly covered in the Quran or Sunnah.
10	Qiyas refers to:	a) Judicial decision b) Customary law c) Analogical reasoning d) Divine revelation	c	Qiyas means reasoning by analogy — extending known rules to new situations based on similar reasoning.
11	The prohibition on alcohol being extended to drugs through analogy is an example of:	a) Ijma b) Qiyas c) Sunnah d) Fiqh	b	This is classic Qiyas — applying the rule on wine (due to intoxication) to other intoxicants.
12	Which of the following is not a primary source of Muslim law?	a) Quran b) Sunnah c) Custom d) Ijma	c	Custom (Urf) is a secondary source; the four primary sources are Quran, Sunnah, Ijma, and Qiyas.
13	Which of the following is an essential condition for a custom to be valid under Muslim law?	a) It must be recent b) It must be contrary to Shariat c) It must be ancient, continuous, and reasonable d) It must be written	c	Custom must be ancient, continuous, reasonable, and not opposed to Shariat principles.
14	The case Abdul Hussain v. Sona Dero (1917) dealt with:	a) Judicial precedents b) Custom c) Legislation d) Ijma	b	This case recognized the validity of local customs in Muslim personal law when consistent with Shariat.
15	The first codified Muslim personal law in India was through:	a) The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939 b) The Shariat Application Act, 1937 c) The Waqf Act, 1995 d) Muslim Women Act, 1986	b	The Shariat Application Act, 1937 was the first to codify and unify Muslim personal law in India.
16	The Shah Bano Begum v. Union of India (1985) case is significant for:	a) Child custody b) Divorce rights c) Maintenance for divorced Muslim women d) Waqf property disputes	c	It upheld that Muslim women are entitled to maintenance under Section 125 of the CrPC even after divorce.
17	Which Act provides rights to divorced Muslim women for maintenance and other benefits?	a) Waqf Act, 1995 b) Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986 c) Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939 d) Shariat Act, 1937	b	The 1986 Act provides rights and remedies to divorced Muslim women.
18	The principle of Equity, Justice, and Good Conscience was adopted from:	a) British law b) Roman law c) Mughal law d) Ottoman law	a	The doctrine originated in British jurisprudence to ensure fair and moral outcomes in cases lacking explicit rules.
19	Which of the following is considered a modern source of Muslim law in India?	a) Qiyas b) Ijma c) Judicial precedents d) Sunnah	c	Modern sources include judicial precedents, legislation, and equity, justice, and good conscience.
20	The predominant school of Muslim law followed in India is:	a) Hanbali b) Shafi’i c) Hanafi d) Maliki	c	The Hanafi School (Sunni) is the most widely followed school among Indian Muslims.

Concept	Summary
Shariat Application Act, 1937	Enforced uniform application of Muslim personal law in India, replacing local customs.
Primary Sources	Quran (divine revelation), Sunnah (Prophet’s example), Ijma (consensus), Qiyas (analogy).
Other Source	Custom (Urf) — accepted if consistent with Shariat.
Modern Sources	Judicial precedents, legislation, and equity, justice, and good conscience.
Major Statutes	Shariat Act, 1937; Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939; Muslim Women Act, 1986; Waqf Act, 1995.
Major Case Laws	Shah Bano (1985), Daniel Latifi (2001), Abdul Hussain v. Sona Dero (1917).